Microorganisms in Waste Water Treatment Process

Microorganisms in Waste Water Treatment Process When people think of microorganisms, they tend to think of unsafe pathogens. While this may be of concern there are beneficial microorganisms living ubiquitously around us as well. Microorganisms that live in air, soil, and groundwater live in a symbiotic cycle, consuming harmful chemicals and masses of organic materials. Therefore, it is only natural that scientists would harness the natural biodegradation of these in the field of Wastewater Management. Biotechnologists prefer to call this process bioremediation. They have been using bioremediation on wastewater for many years and have discovered a plethora of usable microorganisms. Due to the vast amounts of microorganisms capable of bioremediation, this paper is focusing on bacterium capable of breaking down organic material useful in treating wastewater. Wastewater treatment is performed on a variety of waste sources such as agricultural, residential, and industrial waste. Many bacteria such as Nitrsomonas, nitrobacter and paracoccus are important players in the treatment of industrial and sewage waste. The use of microbes in wastewater treatment plants is an integral piece of the wastewater treatment process due to the fact that microbial population in a facility can become depleted resulting in system back-ups, organic material build-up and overall reduction in system efficiency. It is at this point when supplementation of a microbial product becomes necessary. There are three stages of wastewater treatment: primary, secondary, and tertiary where microorganisms can be added or encouraged to grow in wastewater . The first two stages are concerned with large debris and organic matter removal by the use of a variety of filtration and sedimentation processes. Microbial organisms are stimulated in the second and third stages and the goa l is to degrade excessive amounts of contaminants such as nitrogen, phosphates, oils, chemicals and heavy metals by the third stage. One common practice used in residential wastewater in the second stage, is using activated sludge techniques, which aerates the waste to stimulate denitrifying and nitrifying microorganisms to biodegrade the waste. Most large sewage treatment plants use a two-phase digestion system in which organics are metabolized by  bacteria,  anaerobically. In the first stage, the sludge is heated and mixed in a closed tank for about 15 days, while digestion takes place. The sludge then flows into a second tank, which serves primarily for storage and settling. Sludge digestion is a biological process in which organic solids are decomposed into stable substances. Nitrifying and denitrifying organisms, both aerobic and anaerobic are added to convert about half of the organic sludge solids to liquids and gases (Siezen Galardini, 2008). Nitrosomonas europae was isolated in 1892 by Russian microbiologist Sergio Winogradsky. It has been a useful bacterium in wastewater treatment, usually added in the secondary treatment process due to its ability to breakdown organic material. If given an aerobic environment, ammonia is oxidized first to nitrite by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, then nitrite is oxidized to nitrate by nitrite-oxidizing bacteria which makes N. europaea primarily important in the nitrification cycle (Arp and Bottomley, 2006). Nitrosomonas. europaea  is a bacillus shaped, gram-negative obligate chemolithoautotroph; which is an autotroph that gets its energy from oxidation of inorganic substances in the absence of light. It is a mobile bacteria with flagella located in its polar region. It commonly inhabits places rich in ammonia and inorganic salt, such as in soils, freshwaters, stone monuments, and sewage. It obtains most of its energy from its ammonia-oxidizing capabilites, an unusual process for most ba cteria.  Cell division may take several days due to its need for large amounts of ammonia consuming about 25 moles of ammonia per mole of carbon dioxide assimilated into cellular biomass (Arp and Bottomley, 2006).   Due to its long delay in cell division, scientists tend to avoid studying Nitrosomona. N. eurpoaea gains carbon from the atmosphere by converting carbon in a gaseous form into carbon bound up in organic molecules. Its genome consists of a single circular chromosome with 2,812,094 bases. Its gene structure denotes that it must take in Fe and suggests it can take in other metals such as Cu, Cd, Zn, and Co as well (Chain, Lamerdin, Larimer, Ragala, Lao, 2003). N. europea functions best at a basic ph but can tolerate a ph between 6.0-9.0 and it prefers temperatures between 20-30 degrees Celsius. Nitrobacter hamburgensis got its name because it was isolated in soil of the Old Botanic Garden in Hamburg. It is a gram-negative bacteria that lives mainly in soil, building sandstone, and sewage sludge. It is pear-shaped and has one sub-polar flagellum. There is one circular DNA chromosome and three circular DNA plasmids with 4,406,967 base pairs on the chromosome. (Kaipa, et al, 2010). N. hamburgensis  gains energy from oxidation of nitrite to nitrate and has the ability of metabolizing nitrogen in nitrite from its environment. It is found mainly in soil and freshwater. (Arp Bottomley, 2006). The bacteria has provided a solution to removing high levels of nitrogen from municipal effluents of wastewater treatment plants. Biofilms with different nitrifying bacteria including  N. hamburgensis  have been constructed. Before the invention of these biofilms very large and expensive reactors were used for this purpose. Paracoccus denitrificans, an organism that removes high levels of nitrogen in wastewater when paired with Nitrosomonas europaea, a nitrifying organism which reduces ammonia to nitrate. P. denitrifican  is a spherical coccus shaped gram-negative bacteria having a double membrane cell wall. It inhabit soils in either aerobic or anaerobic environments. First isolated in 1910 by Martinus Beijerinck, a Dutch microbiologist gave the organism the name  Micrococcus denitrificans, only later to be changed by Diana.H. Davis in 1969 to the current name Paracoccus denitrificans after the discovery that the bacteria contained many features known to be in mitochondria, possibly an ancestor to the eukaryotic mitochondria. (Davis, et al, 1969). The genome of  P. denitrificans  consists of two circular chromosomes and one plasmid. The first chromosome has 2,852,282 base pairs and the second chromosome has 1,730,097 base pairs. The plasmid has 653,815 base pairs (Swiss Inst., 2007). Many of th e proteins transcribed and translated from the plasmid is what gives  P. denitrificans  its unique features of the ability to metabolize ammonium to nitrogen gas. Due to P. denitrificans  ability to produce more than 5000 proteins it is useful in biotechnological applications (Uemoto Saiki, 2007). Another process commonly used in wastewater treatment is the use of biofilms, various trickling rock filters that encourage biofilms. (Sillankorva, Neubauer, Azeredo, 2008) These biofilms build microorganism communites enclosed in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances separated by water channels. Within these colonies are a variety of bacteria, fungi and algae which biodegrade waste. Psuedomonas fluorescens, P. syringae and P. putida are a few of the bacterias found in biofilms. As well as fungus like Mycelium and algaes. The biofilm community is an optimal environment for cell-cell interactions, including the cellular exchange of genetic material, and nutrient exchange within the community. The matrix protects the microorganisms from UV exposure, metal toxicity, acid exposure, dehydration and salinity, phagocytosis, antibiotics, and antimicrobial agents (Hall-Stoodley, et al 2004). Pseudomonas fluorescens makes a great contribution to the turnover of organic matter and while present in soil, is abundant on the surfaces of plant roots and leaves. P. fluorescens grows at an optimum temperature of 25 ° Celsius but can also survive in temperatures as low as 0 ° degrees Celsius make it a rare pathogenic in humans. The bacterias degrading ability has been applied to pollutants such as styrene, TNT and, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Sillankorva, Neubauer, Azeredo, 2008). Notable is P. putida possessing a high biodegrading metabolism. It can breakdown styrene which is a highly polluting synthetic chemical, used to make plastics (Park, et al, 2005)). Pseudomonas putida is a gram-negative shaped bacteria, similar to  Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an known pathogen to humans, however it is missing key gene segments that P. aeruginosa possess making it nonpathogenic. The biochemistry of P. putida makes it an aerobic, gram negative, flourescent colored, rod-shaped bacteria. It a motile organism with one or more polar flagella. They are usually found in moist soil and water environments and grow optimally at room temperature. Certain strains have the ability to grow on and break down many dangerous pollutants and aromatic  hydrocarbons  such as toluene,  benzene, and ethylbenzene.  P. putida  can also be used in petroleum plants to purify fuel. P. putida  is also closely related to  Pseudomonas syringae, an abundant plant pathogen, but again it la cks the gene that causes such disease (DOE, 1998). The first isolation of Psuedomonas syringae occurred in 1902 by van Hall from a diseased lilac. Psuedomonas syringae are aerobic rod-shaped gram negative bacteria that are motile with the use of several polar flagella. Psuedomonas syringae secretes a plant toxin making it a known plant pathogen. Therefore, it is easy to see its use in the biodegradation of organic waste. Each strain of this bacteria has a specific plant it targets and is often found on plant leaves. Any interesting quality is its ability to form ice crystals, P. syringae  is responsible for causing frost injury to frost-sensitive plants. (Feil, et al, 2005) This discovery led to its production of artificial snow.

Irish Stereotyping In The Late 1800’s Essay

Published in Puck, America’s first successful comedic magazine containing several types of cartoons, on June 26, 1889 a cartoon entitled â€Å"The Mortar Of Assimilation And The One Element That Just Won’t Mix† clearly shows an Irishman rebelling against the rest of the American crowd with a knife in his hand, expressing violence, and possibly alcoholism. Through further research I found that how poorly the Irish were treated during this time period. The cartoon â€Å"The Mortar Of Assimilation And The One Element That Just Won’t Mix† expresses the idea Irishmen just do not belong in America, despite the several other races intertwined into our country. This cartoon brings me to the question; Why? Why were the Irish labeled as such outcasts? I have discovered three main reasons to answer this question: The Irish were labeled as violent, drunk, and having strange religious views. One clear reason the Irish were labeled as outcasts is because of the violence they were stereotyped to portray. The Irishman holding the knife in the cartoon is a perfect example of this. The Fenian brotherhood was a group with one main goal to obtain all freedom and become an independent republic of Ireland. For many played the role of motivation in emigrating to the United States, played a large role in this stereotype. One article in particular, entitled â€Å"The Fenians In Ireland† published in The New York Observer And Chronicle on November 23, 1895, articulates a perfect example of the violence portray by the Fenian brotherhood. It wrote: â€Å"The Derry Journal contains the following account of a sense of terror and alarm which occurred in a quiet village, but a few evenings since in consequence of a farmer of reliable veracity knocking up his sleepy neighbors to defend their homes and their firesides against a host of bloodthirsty, who were in march for their well-stocked farmyards. After some delay a great number of the male inhabitants were brought together in a truly warlike style†¦. The supposed Fenians had disappeared leaving the mangled remains of one of their companions behind them.† Another reason the Irish were labeled as outcasts is because of their religion. At this point in history America was made up of mostly Protestants, however the majority of the Irish emigrants were Catholic. Most Irish children were put into parochial schools and religion was placed as a big priority in their lives. The Irish held on tightly to their religious ways, a main reason being that was the one thing that still tied them to their homeland. Roman â€Å"Catholic priests denounce the common schools, and set up their protests in the form of un-American parochial schools.† (The Methodist Review, 5 January 1889) Americans refused to accept this religion due to the differences in their beliefs and practices. Today, Catholicism is one of the United States’ most common religions, with much thanks due to the Irish emigration. . Catholics also weren’t able to run for any political office, so that ruled out most of the Irish population for a great while, until the Know Nothing Act took place and the United States was able to look past religion. â€Å"The curse of the Irishman in America is strong drink.† (The Chautauquan, 8 October 1887) Drinking was a big part of Irish cultures. Even wakes were associated with alcohol due to the celebration of the deceased’s life. Americans feared their mostly Protestant nation would soon die out if the mostly Catholic Irish all emigrated to the United States, another reason why the Irish were not treated fairly. Not only were the Irish viewed as hot-headed violent, people with strange religious views, they were also known to be unskilled and drunk. Americans viewed Irish as alcoholics due to the drinking that is weaved into their culture and ways of living. Much like our culture does today, Irish drank in several difference social settings, although the y did drink alcohol at someone’s wake before the funeral, which may have been what disgusted Americans the most. Americans saw alcohol has ruling over the Irish and they were merely the slaves. One should also note, this was during the time of the ban of alcohol in the United States, so to see one consuming alcohol at such high rates was highly alarming and it would not be long for one to create a bad reputation because of something so simple. Due to this, Americans also stereotyped the Irish to be unskilled and lazy, at times signs were even put into windows stating things such as, â€Å"Irish need not apply.† At this point in history, Irish were viewed much similarly to African Americans when it came to respect. Over time, the Irish were able to keep their customs without encountering further confrontation, and the United States was able to run as one country under many different religions and customs as it does today. Catholics were able to run for office and Catholicism soon became one of the United States’ top most common religions. The Irish were looked down upon by Americans for three main reasons; they were stereotyped to be violent, drunk, and had different religious views which were frowned upon by the Americans. The Fenian brotherhood played a big role in the Irish being stereotyped as violent. At times, it is possible Irishmen were stereotyped to be violent because they were also known to be drunks. The Irish were known to be drunks because of the drinking that is associated with their culture. The Irish emigration to America had a lasting effect on everyone that was a part of the country, without the Irish emigration to the United States, America would not be what it is today, with a beautiful mix of races, religions, and beliefs.

Broken Spears

The Broken Spears â€Å"The Broken Spears† is a collection of many accounts of the destruction of Mexico by Cortes and the conquistadors in their invasion. The motive behind this conquest was Cortes’ desire to bring a fortune of gold, spices, and land that can be claimed, back to Spain. Although these desires were admirable, they were sought after at the expense of the Aztecs and consequently changed an entire civilization, due to an initial drive for power, control, land, and money. Cortez along with the Spaniards ultimately destroys the Aztecs in their quest for fortune and fame. The accounts are based on the Aztec’s perception of the invasion and include the revolt of the Aztec people that lead to the terror and the end of the Aztec civilization. The Spaniards first entrance into Tenochtitlan The novel begins with the description of a series of omens or premonitions, observed ten years prior, that was believed to be essential warnings of the coming invasion. The omens arouse many fearful and terrifying reactions. At the time, the meanings were unclear to the Natives. According to the text, â€Å"Montezuma consulted various seers and magicians to learn whether the omens meant an approaching war or some other crisis†, however the magicians could not advise him. Not soon after, according to the second chapter, there were reports that â€Å"the mountains bore a strange people who have very light skin. They all have long beards, and their hair comes only to their ears. † After much contemplation, Montezuma sent five messengers to greet the strangers and to bring them gifts believing that they might be Quetzalcoatl (God of learning and the wind) and other divinities returning to Mexico as they promised. 2:13)Montezuma gave specific instructions as to how to present the messengers and gifts to the strangers. The natives showed reverence to the strangers at their arrival by â€Å"touching the ground before him with their lips†. (25) However, Cortez in return gave orders to chain them by their necks and feet. When the messengers retur n, they inform Montezuma of the various firearms, animals, foods, and resources the Spaniard possessed, and he was astonished and terrified by their report. Montezuma’s attempts to keep the Spaniard away from the Tenochtitlan included everything from sending out magicians and warlocks hoping that they could harm the Spaniards with their magic, to sending out captives to be sacrificed in their presence. With each failed attempt to prevent the Spaniards from entering Tenochtitlan, came the rising fears of the â€Å"inevitable†. As the Spaniard began to inquire about Montezuma, he contemplated fleeing and escaping the â€Å"gods†. Due to Montezuma’s failed attempts, Cortez and the Spaniards decided to begin marching In-land, in their arrival to Tlaxcala and Cholula. One could argue that the invasion of these cities was due to the defiance and the fact that they would not surrender to Cortez’s control. During the march Cortez gained a larger army and allies. Once Cortez and the Spaniards reached the entrance of Tenochtitlan their march was complete. Montezuma then prepared to greet Cortez. According to the text, â€Å"He presented many gifts to the Captain and his commanders, those who had come to make war. He showered gifts upon them and hung flowers around their necks; he gave them necklaces of flowers and bands of flowers to adorn their breasts; he set garlands of flowers upon their heads. Then he hung the gold necklaces around their necks and gave them presents of every sort as gifts of welcome. † Not mentioned in the Broken Spears however, according to the Diaz document, Cortez offered Montezuma his right hand but Montezuma refused it. It also states that Cortez went to place fine a necklace on Montezuma’s neck, but his nephews stopped and refused him. The Spaniards seemed to portray a non confrontational notion, as if they arrived with pure intentions. The document’s perspective seems to contradict those of The Broken Spears. The document describes the Aztec’s conversion to Christianity as a peaceful one. It also states that Montezuma pronounces that â€Å"I am in debt and will give all I poses,† revealing that Montezuma willingly gave of his possessions and land. However, according to The Broken Spears, the Aztecs were tortured and terrorized. The Expulsion from Tenochtitlan (Spring 1520) After imprisoning Montezuma, the Spaniards begin to terrorize the city, causing commotion and inflicting fear into the natives. The terrorism that was taking place caused an uprising battles and massacres to take place. One example of the harshness inflicted on the Aztecs was the events that took place at a Fiesta. The Spaniard invaded the Fiesta, murdering many Aztecs and revealing the Spaniards did not abide by the Aztec rules or expectations of war. They were said to be reckless and extremely brutal, without respect or compassion. Preceding the surprise attack at the Fiesta, other attacks and retaliations arouse, such as the Night of Sorrow. The Aztecs no longer desired to follow Montezuma’s initial orders for non retaliation. They decided to take up arms and fight against the Spanish. In the attack at the Fiesta, they fought with broken spears and attacked with javelins and arrows. However the Aztecs came to the realization that enough blood was shed. Montezuma’s body was discovered and it was unclear as to his cause of death. Since the Aztec no longer catered to the Spaniards by providing them with food, shelter and supplies, Cortez realizes that they must leave the land. They planned to retreat at night, however the retreat was discovered. According to the text, â€Å"They attacked as the Spaniards were fleeing down the Tlacopan (now Tacuba) causeway, and the rout was so disastrous that it has been known ever since as â€Å"la noche triste,† the Night of Sorrows. Those who escaped the disaster found refuge in the nearby village of Teocalhueyacan, where they were welcomed as friends; but three-fourths of the army had perished in the retreat and in the siege that preceded it. The Aztecs benefited greatly from the fleeing of Spaniards. They gathered things that the Spaniard abandoned and claimed it for themselves. They collected weapons that had been left behind or had fallen into the canal-the cannons, swords, spears, bows and arrows-along with all the steel helmets, coats of mail and breast- plates, and the shields of metal, wood and hide. They recovered the gold ingots, the gold disks, the tubes of gold dust and the collars with their gold pe ndants. The violent recapture of Tenochtitlan (1521) The Aztecs were convinced that the Spaniard would never return. They began to rebuild the city and the temples, and celebrated in a victorious manner. They choose a new King for the city; however it was not long that the Aztecs lived in tranquility. A horrible plague of smallpox quickly spread. The plague spread during the thirteenth month and lasted for seventy days, striking everywhere in the city. It was difficult for some to walk or even move. Many died from the disease, some died of hunger because they were incapable of searching for food. The text describes that the first cases were reported in Cuatlan. By the time the danger was recognized, the plague was so well established that nothing could halt it, and eventually it spread all the way to Chalco. Then its cruelty diminished considerably, though there were isolated cases for many months after. The Spaniards returned without mercy. This time however they had more forces, and resources, and better technology. Although the Aztecs had a previous disposition, they retaliated, being aware this time, of some of the Spaniards tactics. For example, discovered that the shots from the cannons always flew in a straight line, they no longer ran away in the line of fire. They ran to the right or left or in zigzags, not in front of the guns. After a great deal of battles and much bloodshed. The Aztecs eventually surrendered to the Spaniards. The Aztecs culture and civilization was eventually eradicated after the Spaniard burned the temples and destroyed their empires. In comparing the readings of The Broken Spears to some document excerpts, a large disparity is found. There were many actions that the Aztec’s took, that to some were considered barbaric. For instance, in The Conquest of New Spain, Diaz describes the Aztecs to be somewhat savage like. He mentioned that they would â€Å"tear out the palpitation heart, with the blood, they present as idols† and they would eat â€Å"arms and thighs at their ceremonial banquets†. However, The Broken Spears describes these actions as sacred sacrifices that were signs of respect and honor. These reasons alone prove why separate accounts help understand history. There is a saying that states: â€Å"There are two sides to every story. † The Broken Spears would be considered the other side

The Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease - 2246 Words

INTRODUCTION Alzheimer’s Disease has been one of the top leading causes of death in our country. It is understood that this disease is identified as an excess of the protein amyloid-ß within an increase of plaque (Seneff, Wainwright, and Mascitelli, 2010). Additionally, as the brain ages, it gets used to the inflammation and oxidative stress, so it is important to take the right amount of antioxidant micronutrients like vitamin C and vitamin E as well as anti-inflammatory macronutrients such as omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to protect the brain from ageing (Whalley et. al, 2004). This is a devastating disease that affects most people over the age of fifty. Recently, there have been many studies done to figure out what causes this disease, if there is anything that can cure it, and how to prevent the disease. Seneff, Wainwright, and Mascitelli, believe Alzheimer’s develops with consuming too many carbohydrates, especially fructose and having a deficiency in chol esterol and dietary fats as well (2010). Whalley, Starr, and Deary have seen that poor diet, poverty, and failing health are links to developing Alzheimer’s Disease (2004). Furthermore, seeing increase in plasma homocysteine concentration increases risk of Dementia, which can result from an inadequate intake of vitamin B12/folate (Walley et. al, 2004). Additionally, Gray supports Walley’s findings and even believes having an adequate intake of vitamin B12/folate will have a positive effect on the overall healthShow MoreRelatedThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease1421 Words   |  6 Pagesengulfed by a mysterious disease. The neurons being cut off and destroyed by two abnormal structures. First memory is affected gradually getting worse. Then one is unable to think properly, reason, and lacks of self control. 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By the age of 65, 1 in 9 people are diagnosed and by the age of 85, 1 in 3 people will have the disease. According to the Alzheimer Association, 5 million people in American have Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer’s starts to form 20 years prior to being diagnosed. Learning about Alzheimer’s can help familiesRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease : Disease1759 Words   |  8 Pages Alzheimer’s Disease Madison Lollar Psychology 1030-C62 Volstate Community College Word Count: 1,589 Alzheimer’s Disease: When it comes to Alzheimer’s, I know firsthand how it affects individuals and their families. My great grandfather had Alzheimer’s for many years before his passing late last year, at age 92. Alzheimer’s is a disease that many individuals suffer with each year, but yet with all the advancements in modern medicine we still have no cure for it. There are differentRead MoreThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease1385 Words   |  6 PagesThe disease stem cells could fix is called Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). The reason I chose this topic is because I have seen first hand how badly someone who suffers from Alzheimer’s Disease is affected in their daily lives. This disease completely takes over their lives and they turn into a completely different person who can hardly function. AD is very tough on the loved ones of the person suffering from it because that person, most of the time has no idea what is going on or who their loved onesRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease : A Disease1304 Words   |  6 Pages10, 2015 Alzheimer’s Disease Alzheimer’s is a disease in the brain that affects a person’s memory, thinking, and behavior. It is the most common form of dementia and is common in adults older than 65. More than five million Americans are being affected by Alzheimer’s at this moment. Alzheimer’s comes in three stages; early, middle, and advanced. The disease is caused by the shrinking of the brain due to many risk factors and genetics. Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease are often confused becauseRead MoreThe Disease Of Alzheimer s Disease2364 Words   |  10 Pages1. Introduction Alzheimer’s disease is a prominent brain disease that effects a massive amount of individuals in the United States. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States, accounting for 60-80% of dementia cases, with no chance of being cured, prevented or decelerating over time (Alzheimer’s Association, 2014). AD is the most well-known form of dementia, causing complications in brain function in the areas of memory, thinking, and behavior (Alzheimer’s